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Principles and parameters grammar 33 Box 2. All these capture some aspect of L2 learning and contribute to our knowledge of the whole.

A radically different way of looking at grammar that has become popular in recent years, however, tries to see what human languages have in common. This is the Universal Grammar theory associ- ated with Noam Chomsky. All human minds are believed to honour the common principles that are forced on them by the nature of the human mind that all their speakers share.

They differ over the settings for the parameters for particular languages. The overall implications of the UG model are given in Chapter In other words, it presupposes that they know the structure of the sentence; anybody producing a question in English takes the structure of the sentence into account. Inversion questions in English, and indeed in all other languages, involve a knowledge of structure, not just of the order of the words. There is no particular reason why this should be so; computer languages, for instance, do not behave like this, nor do mathematical equations.

It is just an odd feature of human lan- guages that they depend on structure. In short, the locality principle is built into the human mind. However, if the human mind always uses its built-in lan- guage principles, interlanguages too must conform to them.

It would be impossible for the L2 learner, say, to produce questions that did not depend on structure. And indeed no one has yet found sentences said by L2 learners that break the known lan- guage principles. Second language learners clearly have few problems with this deviant structure compared to other structures. Interlanguages do not vary without limit, but conform to the over- all mould of human language, since they are stored in the same human minds.

Like any scientific theory, this may be proved wrong. Tomorrow someone may find a learner who has no idea that questions depend on structure. But so far no one has found clear-cut examples of learners breaking these universal principles. Principles and parameters grammar 35 Parameters of variation How do parameters capture the many grammatical differences between lan- guages? One variation is whether the grammatical subject of a declarative sen- tence has to be actually present in the sentence.

The same is true for French, for English and for a great many languages. The same is true in Arabic and Chinese and many other languages. This variation is captured by the pro-drop parameter — so-called for technical reasons we will not go into here. The pro-drop parameter variation has effects on the grammars of all languages; each of them is either pro-drop or non-pro-drop. Children learning their first language at first start with sentences without subjects Hyams, Then those who are learning a non-pro-drop language such as English go on to learn that subjects are compulsory.

The obvious question for L2 learning is whether it makes a difference if the first language does not have subjects and the second language does, and vice versa. Lydia White compared how English was learnt by speakers of French a non-pro-drop language with compulsory subjects and by speakers of Spanish a pro-drop language with optional subjects.

If the L1 setting for the pro-drop parameter has an effect, the Spanish-speaking learn- ers should make different mistakes from the French-speaking learners. Oddly enough, this effect does not nec- essarily go in the reverse direction: English learners of Spanish do not have as much difficulty with leaving the subject out as Spanish learners of English have with put- ting it in.

One attraction of this form of grammar is its close link to language acquisition, as we see in Chapter The parts of language that have to be learnt are the set- tings for the parameters on which languages vary. The parts which do not have to be learnt are the principles that all languages have in common. Learning the grammar of a second language is not so much learning completely new structures, rules, and so on, as discovering how to set the parameters for the new language — for example, whether you have to use a subject, what the word order is within the phrase — and acquiring new vocabulary.

Another attraction is that it provides a framework within which all languages can be compared. It used to be difficult to compare grammars of different lan- guages, say, English and Japanese, because they were regarded as totally different.

Now the grammars of all languages are seen as variations within a single overall scheme. Chinese, Arabic or Spanish students all have problems with the sub- ject in English because of their different setting for the pro-drop parameter. The implications of this overall model for language learning and language teach- ing are described in greater detail in Chapter For the moment we need to point out that the study of grammar and of acquisition by linguists and SLA researchers in recent years has been much more concerned with the development of abstract ways of looking at phenomena like pro-drop than with the conventional grammar of earlier sections.

Language teaching will eventually miss out if it does not keep up with such new ideas of grammar Cook, Principles and parameters theory puts grammar on a different plane from anything in language teaching. Hence teachers will not find any quick help with carrying out conventional grammar teaching in such forms of grammar.

But they will nevertheless understand better what the students are learning and the processes they are going through. It is an insightful way of looking at language which teachers have not hitherto been conscious of. Let us gather together some of the threads about grammar and teaching intro- duced so far in this chapter. If the syllabus that the student is learning includes grammar in some shape or form, this should be not just a matter of structures and rules but a range of highly complex phenomena, a handful of which have been discussed in this chapter.

The L2 learning of grammar has turned out to be wider and deeper than anyone supposed. Teaching has to pay attention to the internal processes and knowledge the students are subconsciously building up in their minds.

Grammar is also relevant to the sequence in which elements of language are taught. Of necessity, language teaching has to present the various aspects of lan- guage in order, rather than introducing them all simultaneously. This is typical of the sequences that have been developed for EFL teaching over the past hundred years, based chiefly on the tense system.

While it has been tested in prac- tice, it has no particular justification from SLA research. When language use and classroom tasks became more important to teaching, the choice of a teaching sequence was no longer straightforward, since some way of sequencing these non-grammatical items needed to be found. SLA research has often claimed that there are definite orders for learning language, particularly for grammar, as we have seen.

What should teachers do about this? Four extreme points of view can be found: 1 Ignore the parts of grammar that have a particular L2 learning sequence, as the learner will follow these automatically in any case. Teachers should therefore get on with teaching the thousand and one other things that the student needs, and should let nature follow its course. So the order of teaching should follow the order found in L2 learning as much as possible. The students can best be helped by being given the extreme point of the sequence and by filling in the intermediary positions for themselves.

It has been claimed, for example, that teaching the most difficult types of relative clauses is more effective than teach- ing the easy forms, because the students fill in the gaps for themselves sponta- neously rather than needing them filled by teaching. Obviously this depends on the definition of grammar: in the Lang5 sense that any speaker of a language knows the grammatical system of the language, then grammar is not dispensable in this way, but plays a part in every sentence anybody pro- duces or comprehends for whatever communicative reason.

As with pronunciation, an additional problem is which grammar to use. Traditionally for English the model has been taken to be that of a literate edu- cated native speaker from an English-speaking country.

This, however, ignores the differences between varieties of English spoken in different countries. And similar issues arise in choosing a grammatical model for most languages that are used across a variety of countries: should French be based on Parisians and ignore the rest of France, along with the Frenches spoken in Switzerland, Quebec and Central Africa?

No one would probably hold completely to these simplified views. The fuller implications of the L2 order of learning or difficulty depend on the rest of teach- ing. Teaching must balance grammar against language functions, vocabulary, class- room interaction, and much else that goes on in the classroom to find the appropriate teaching for those students in that situation.

Teachers do not necessar- ily have to choose between these alternatives once and for all. A different decision may have to be made for each area of grammar or language and each stage of acqui- sition. The role of explicit grammar in language teaching 39 Box 2.

In what way? Keywords consciousness-raising: helping the learners by drawing attention to features of the second language language awareness: helping the learners by raising awareness of language itself sensitization: helping the learners by alerting them to features of the first lan- guage focus on FormS: deliberate discussion of grammar without reference to mean- ing focus on form FonF : discussion of grammar and vocabulary arising from meaningful language in the classroom It is one thing to make teachers aware of grammar and to base coursebooks, syl- labuses and teaching exercises on grammar.

It is something else to say that the stu- dents themselves should be aware of grammar. Indeed, Chapter 1 showed that the nineteenth- and twentieth-century teaching tradition has avoided explicit gram- mar in the classroom. This section looks at some of the ideas that have been raised about using grammatical terms and descriptions with the student.

Though the dis- cussion happens to concentrate on grammar, the same issues arise about the use of phonetic symbols in pronunciation teaching, the class discussion of meanings of words, or the explanations of language functions, all of which depend on the stu- dents consciously understanding the rules and features of language. One issue is the extent to which grammatical form and meaning should be sep- arated.

A linguist might object that grammar is a system for encoding and decoding particular meanings; any teaching of grammar that does not involve meaning is not teaching grammar at all. However, the distinction between FormS and FonF does focus attention away from grammar explanation for its sake, towards thinking how grammar may contribute within the whole context of lan- guage teaching methodology, as described in Chapter Explicit grammar teaching This revives the classical debate in language teaching about whether grammar should be explained to the students, as mentioned in Chapter 1.

Usually the kind of grammar involved is the traditional or structural grammar described earlier, exemplified in books such as Basic Grammar in Use Murphy, ; seldom does it mean grammar in the sense of knowledge of principles and parameters such as locality and pro-drop.

Hence it has often been argued that the problem with teaching grammar overtly is not the method itself but the type of grammar that has been used. Most linguists would regard these grammars as the equivalent to using alchemy as the basis for teaching chemistry. Other types of grammar are hardly ever used. If the grammar content were better, perhaps explicit grammar teaching would be more effective.

The use of explicit explanation implies that L2 learning is different from L1 learning, where it never occurs. The main issue is the connection between conscious understanding of a rule and the ability to use it.

Any linguist can tell you facts about languages such as Japanese or Gboudi that their native speakers could not describe. This does not mean the linguists can say a single word, let alone a sentence, of Japanese or Gboudi in a comprehensible way.

In their case this satisfies their needs. Grammatical explanation is a way of teaching facts about the language — that is to say, a form of linguistics. If the aim of teaching is academic knowledge of language, conscious understanding is acceptable as a form of L2 learning. Grammatical explanation in the classroom has relied on the assumption that rules which are learnt consciously can be converted into unconscious processes of comprehension and production.

Some people have questioned whether academic knowledge ever converts into the ability to use the language in this way. The French subjunctive was explained to me at school, not just to give me academic knowledge of the facts of French, but to help me to write French.

Stephen Krashen , however, has persistently denied that consciously learnt rules change into normal speech processes in the same way as grammar that is acquired unconsciously, sometimes called the non-interface position, that is, that learnt grammar does not convert into the acquired grammar that speech depends on.

Conscious knowledge of language rules in this view is no more than an optional extra. Convincing as these claims may be, one should remember that many graduates of European universities who learnt English by studying traditional grammars turned into fluent and spontaneous speakers of English. I asked university-level students of English which explicit grammar rules they had found useful; almost all said that they still sometimes visualized verb paradigms for English to check what they were writing.

This at least suggests that the conversion of conscious rules to non-conscious processes does take place for some academic students; every teaching method works for someone somewhere. Language awareness An alternative possibility is that raising awareness of language in general helps second language learning.

If the students know the kind of thing to expect in the new language, they are more receptive to it. They invent their own labels for grammar, rather than being taught a pre-established system. The textbook Learning to Learn English Ellis and Sinclair, pro- vides some exercises to make EFL learners more aware of their own predilections, for instance, suggesting ways for the students to discover grammatical rules them- selves. Philip Riley suggested sensitization of the students by using features of the first language to help them understand the second, say, by discussing puns to help them see how speech is split up into words.

Increasing awareness of lan- guage may have many educational advantages and indeed help L2 learning in a broad sense. Raised awareness of language is in itself a goal of some language teaching. It has no particular seal of approval from the types of grammar consid- ered in this chapter, however. However, she found variation between individuals rather than a consistent pattern.

The group who were given explanations did indeed do better than the other groups for the adjectives, but there were only slight effects for pas- sives. Hence there seems to be a difference in the extent to which grammatical forms lend themselves to focus on form: participial adjectives do, passives do not. Nevertheless, the point is that all the parts of grammar cannot be treated in the same way. Because we can help students by clearing up their confusions over past tense endings, we cannot necessarily do the same with relative clauses.

The teaching applications of FonF are discussed at greater length in Chapter 13 as part of task-based teaching. The overall feeling is that judicious use of focus on form within other activities may be useful, rather than full-scale grammar explanation.

The focus on form FonF argument combines sev- eral different threads, all of which are fruitful for teachers to think about: how they can highlight features of the input, subtly direct attention to grammatical errors through recasting, and slip grammatical discussion in as support for other activities, all of which are sound classroom practice.

Nor does it answer the question of which type of grammar is appro- priate for language teaching. Much teaching simply uses structural or traditional grammar without realizing that there are alternative approaches, or indeed that such approaches are not taken seriously as grammar today. Teaching can utilize the known facts about these stages in several ways. Discussion topics 1 Here are seven techniques for teaching grammar. Decide in the light of the var- ious approaches in this chapter what the chief advantage or disadvantage may be for each.

Grammar teaching technique Advantage Disadvantage explanation What type of grammar does it employ? How successfully? For example, what things do you feel people should not say? How much atten- tion do they receive in teaching? How much should they receive? How important do you think that order of presentation is to language teaching? Would this be a good idea? Further reading A good overview of grammatical morphemes research is in Goldschneider and DeKeyser Various viewpoints on grammar and language teaching are summarized in Odlin Pedagogical Grammar.

Otherwise the reader is referred to the books and arti- cles cited in the text. Some grammatical terms See also the glossary on the website. Learning and teaching vocabulary 3 The acquisition of vocabulary at first sight seems straightforward; we all know you need a large number of words to speak a language.

But there is far more to acquiring vocabulary than the acquisition of words. Since the late s there has been a massive explosion in research into the acqui- sition of vocabulary, seen in books such as Nation However, much of it is concerned with the acquisition of isolated words in laboratory experiments and is tested by whether people remember them, not whether they can use them. While such research gives some hints, much of it has little to say about how we can teach people to use a second language vocabulary.

Would you teach them all to beginners? Keywords word frequency: simply measured by counting how often a word or word form occurs in a large sample of spoken or written language, such as the British National Corpus BNC www. Traditional syllabuses for language teaching usually include lists of the most frequent words. Now that vast collections of language are easily accessible on the computer, counting the frequencies of words is fairly simple. The top words account for 45 per cent of all the words in the BNC; in other words, knowing words would allow you at least to recognize nearly half of the words you meet in English.

Usually the teaching of structure words is seen as part of grammar, not vocabulary. Frequency is taken to apply more to content words. Nevertheless we should not forget that the most frequent words in the language are mostly structure words: the top words only include three nouns.

The 20 most frequent words in the BNC for three types of content word are given in Table 3. This list also has some surprises for teachers. Influential as frequency has been in teaching, it has not played a major role in SLA research. It is true that you are more likely to remember a word you meet every day than one you only meet once.

But there are many other factors that make students learn words. Frequency of vocabulary has been applied in teaching mainly to the choice of words to be taught. In a sense, the most useful words for the student are obviously going to be those that are common. But it is unnecessary to worry about fre- quency too much.

If the students are getting reasonably natural English from their coursebooks and their teachers, the common words will be supplied auto- matically. Any natural English the students hear will have the proper frequencies of words; it is only the edited texts and conversations of the classroom that do not have these properties, for better or worse. Box 3.

Learning vocabulary means acquiring long lists of words with their mean- ings, whether through some direct link or via translation into the first language. Coursebooks often have vocabulary lists that organize the words in the course alphabetically, sometimes with brief translations. However, a word in the Lang5 sense of language as knowledge in the mind is more than its meaning.

Words have specific spellings and are linked to the spelling rules of the language. The Universal Grammar model of language acquisition, described in Chapter 12, claims that the argument structure of words is pivotal in language acquisition. We have to know when and to whom it is appropriate to use a word. It is acquiring a complex range of information about its spoken and written form, the ways it is used in grammatical structures and word combinations, and diverse aspects of meaning.

Of course, nobody completely knows every aspect of a word. Nor does any individual speaker possess all the dictionary meanings for a word. Hence the message for language teaching is that vocabulary is everywhere. Effective acquisition of vocabulary can never be just the learning of individual words and their meanings in isolation.

As in most coursebooks, the main emphasis here is on learning vocabulary as meaning, organized in a systematic, logical fashion, rather than on the other aspects mentioned above, which are usually dealt with incidentally in the texts and dialogues rather than in specific vocabulary work. The fundamental question in SLA vocabulary research is how the words of the two languages are stored in the mind. The various alternatives are set out below.

At the moment it is far from certain which of these possibilities is correct. People with two languages are still aware of the words of one language when the other is not being used. So it seems unlikely that there are entirely separate stores. So the question of one dictionary or two is unanswerable at the moment. In your second? Linguists have spent at least a century exploring the different types of meaning that words can have. Here we look at three types that have been linked to L2 acquisition.

Components of meaning Often the meaning of a word can be broken up into smaller components. At one stage they know one component of the meaning but not the other. An informal version of this components approach can be found in coursebooks such as The Words You Need Rudzka et al. Students are encouraged to use the meaning components to build up their vocabulary while reading texts.

Lexical relations Words do not exist by themselves, however, but are always in relationship to other words. Words function within systems of meaning. A metaphor for meaning that is often used is traffic lights.

If a simple three-colour system can lead to such complexity of meanings and indeed traffic acci- dents , think what happens with the thousands of words in any human language. In his book Lexical Semantics Cruse brought out many relationships between words.

Each category may have many variations. And doubtless many more. Prototypes Some aspects of meaning cannot be split up into components but are taken in as wholes. Speakers have a central form of a concept and the things they see and talk about correspond better or worse with this prototype. The basic level of vocabulary is easier to use and to learn. On this foundation, children build higher and lower levels of vocabulary.

Some examples of the three levels of vocabulary are seen in Table 3. Superordinate terms furniture bird fruit Basic-level terms table, chair sparrow, robin apple, strawberry Subordinate terms coffee table, field sparrow Golden Delicious, wild armchair strawberry Table 3. They start with the most basic level as it is easiest for the mind to perceive. Only after this has been learnt do they go on to words that are more general or more specific. This sequence of levels, however, is different from the usual order of presentation in language teaching in which the teacher introduces a whole group of words simul- taneously.

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