Download elements of style pdf

All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is.

Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form. The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:. If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness.

Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from My Last Duchess ,. These words call up pictures. Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used.

It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene. In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.

As we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned.

In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.

Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.

In especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs. See also under case , character , nature , system in Chapter V. As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well. A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.

This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative.

Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable see under Rule 4 , a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious. An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives and , but , so , and less frequently, who , which , when , where , and while , these last in non-restrictive senses see under Rule 3. The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance.

Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation.

The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented. Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song.

Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9 , or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface Before the Curtain to Vanity Fair.

If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions.

It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction. The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it.

The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Correlative expressions both, and ; not, but ; not only, but also ; either, or ; first, second, third ; and the like should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. Many violations of this rule as the first three below arise from faulty arrangement; others as the last from the use of unlike constructions.

See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group.

Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table. The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship.

The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related. The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning. The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause.

Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense see examples under Rule If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise. Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested. In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers.

If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter. But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution compare Rule He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification. In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words.

But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities.

But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.

The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end. The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement. Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America. With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first. So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate. The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.

Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line. Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate. A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent.

The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point. When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.

Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks. Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks. Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks. Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence.

Omit the words act , scene , line , book , volume , page , except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below. After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard IV.

Othello II. If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word.

No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:. The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks.

Use italics indicated in manuscript by underscoring , except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them.

Some of the forms here listed, as like I did , are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as case , factor , feature , interesting , one of the most , are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be.

If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble.

But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules 12 and All right.

Always written as two words. As good or better than. Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

As to whether. Whether is sufficient; see under Rule Takes the infinitive without to. The too frequent use of but as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule A loose sentence formed with but can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with although , as illustrated under Rule 4. Particularly awkward is the following of one but by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation.

This is easily corrected by re-arrangement. See Wood, Suggestions to Authors , pp. Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use very , to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing. Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness. Claim, vb. With object-noun, means lay claim to. Not to be used as a substitute for declare , maintain , or charge. This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.

To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order.

Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London. Different than. Not permissible. Substitute different from , other than , or unlike. Divided into. Not to be misused for composed of. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.

Contraction of do not. The contraction of does not is doesn't. Due to. Equivalent to and the rest , and so forth , and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars.

Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation. At the end of a list introduced by such as , for example , or any similar expression, etc. Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment.

That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they may be , are not properly facts. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. Colloquial in America for arrange , prepare , mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, fasten , make firm or immovable , etc. The colloquial have got for have should not be used in writing.

The preferable form of the participle is got. He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule In the meaning nevertheless , not to come first in its sentence or clause. Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction.

Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so. Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for rather before adjectives and verbs , or except in familiar style, for something like before nouns. Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. Not to be misused for as. Like governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as. Line, along these lines. Line in the sense of course of procedure , conduct , thought , is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase along these lines , that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

Literal, literally. Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor. Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic than lose , but actually less so, because of its commonness. Enabling JavaScript in your browser will allow you to experience all the features of our site. Learn how to enable JavaScript on your browser. This book has conveyed the principles of English style to millions of readers. Kalman has taken 'the little book' and made it even more elegant and uplifting. Look Inside.

This much-loved classic, now in its fourth edition, will forever be the go-to guide when in need of a hint to make a turn of phrase clearer or a reminder on how to enliven prose with the active voice. White I. Elementary Rules of Usage 1. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive.

Search icon An illustration of a magnifying glass. User icon An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up Log in. Web icon An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine Texts icon An illustration of an open book. Throughout, the emphasis is on promoting a plain English style. This little book can help you communicate more effectively by showing you how to enliven your sentences.

This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of plain English style. It aims to lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention in Chapters II and III on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. In accordance with this plan it lays down three rules for the use of the comma, instead of a score or more, and one for the use of the semicolon, in the belief that these four rules provide for all the internal punctuation that is required by nineteen sentences out of twenty.

The Elements of Style is a prescriptive American English writing style guide in numerous editions. The original was composed by William Strunk, Jr. It was much enlarged and revised by E. White for publication by Macmillan in And E. White This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of plain English style. Similarly, it gives in Chapter III only those principles of the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest application. The book thus covers only a small portion of the field of English style.

The experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory, which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook. The numbers of the sections may be used as references in correcting manuscript. The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript.

George McLane Wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 10 of some material from his Suggestions to Authors. The original was composed by William Strunk Jr.